Sayyid Mahmud Khan Barha

Sayyid Mahmud Khan Barha, also known as Mahmud Khan, was a general in the Akbar’r army, Amiral Kabir Sayyid Mahmud Khan Barha, son of Sayyid Mubarak (also known as Makhan), was the first person of this family – the Saiyids of Barah – to rise to the rank of a nobleman. This he did through his bravery and valour during the Timurid Dynasty. He joined the service of Bairam Khan. In the first year of Akbar’s reign and in the same year he was sent with Ali Quli Khan Shaibani to put down Hemu who, after the defeat of Tardi Beg Khan, had out of pride collected a large force and started from Delhi and assume the title of Vikramadwitya.

 

Sayyid Mahmud was deployed in vanguard against Hemu and he fought valiantly and captured artillery of Hemu which he had sent to the battlefield in advance at PanipatAli quli Khan and Sayyed Mahmud Khan won the battle of Panipat before Akbar and Bairam Khan reached the battlefield of Panipat. In the 2nd regnal year 964 Hijri corresponding^[1] to 1557 CE he was appointed to chastise Haji Khan, a slave of Sher Shah Suri, who had taken possession of Ajmer and Nagaur (present day Rajasthan), and was showing signs of rebellion. In the third year he was deputed to capture the fort of Jitaran in Jodhpur, which he won from the Rajputs. When Bairam Khan’s affairs were upset, he joined the king’s service, and received Pargana of Sarwat (present-day Muzaffarnagar) as a fiefdom in Doab of the Ganges-Yamuna.

 

In the seventh year on 16 May 1562 Adham Khan Koka, younger son of Maham Anga, overwhelmed with envy over Shams-ud-Din Ataga Khan, murdered Shams-ud-Din Ataga. Mun’im Khan who had secretly instigated the crime, became panic stricken and attempted to flee to Kabul. En route to Kabul, when he was passing through the fief of Sayyid Mahmud Khan Barha at Sawat present day Muzaffar Nagar, Mun’im Khan was captured by his men. Sayyid Mahmud Khan recognized him and took him back to the royal threshold with honour. Emperor Akbar pardoned him at the intercession of Mahmud Khan Barha. In the seventeenth year of Akbar’s reign he went to Gujarat in attendance on Khan Kalan. Later, he was sent in pursue of Ibrahim Hussain Mirza.

 

Afterwards when the emperor turned his persona attention to this affair, and immediately recalled the

officers who had been sent, Mahmud Khan swiftly joined the emperor Akbar near Sarnal, a town in Gujarat, and distinguished himself. When the Mirza was defeated and retreated towards Agra, he with other officers was appointed to pursue him. In the eighteenth of Akbar’s reign he was sent in advance with a number of officers to Gujarat, and when the emperor during his march reached Mirtha near Jodhpur, Rajasthan he joined the royal party. In the battle with Muhammad Hussain^{[disambiguation needed]} he and a few men formed the reserve, Sayid Mahmud took his place with a number of officers in the centre, and during the conflict advanced courageously beyond the centre, and fought bravely. In the end of the same year he with other Barha Saiyids and Saiyids of Amroha led an expedition against the territory of Madhukar Bundela of Orchha in Bundelkhand and conquered it. ^[1]

 

 Sayyed Mahmud was a straightforward and outspoken man and it is stated in history books that when Akbar deputed him against Madhukar Bundela and he returned victorious, after performing outstanding deeds of valour, he reported to the Emperor that he performed such and such deeds of valour Asaf Khan remarked “Miranji! This victory was due to the Iqbal-e-shah” (glory or good fortune of King), he replied “Why do you tell untruth? Iqbal-e-shah was not there, it was I and my brothers who wielded two-handed swords there”. The king smiled and favoured him with the gifts of all kind and he was granted a Standard and Drums, a great honor. He died on 2 October 1573 and is buried at his ancestral place Mujhera in Muzaffarnagar district. His rank was four thousand personal (Zat) and two thousand horse (sawar). He had six sons sayyid Hashim, sayyid Qasim, Sayyid Alim, Sayyid Salim, Sayyid Jahangir, and Sayyid Ali Asghar Styled Saif Khan Barha. All of his sons became prominent in Akbar and Jahangir‘s reign and were Mansabdar.^[1][2][3][4]

Isa Khan Niazi

Isa Khan Niazi (Pashto: عیسی خان نيازي‎) was an Afghan noble in the court of Sher Shah Suri and his son Islam Shah Suri, of the Sur dynasty, who fought the Mughal Empire.

Isa khan Niazi was born in 1453 and his last brother was born in 1478. He died in 1548 at the age of 95 in Delhi. The time of 1451 – 1525 was the golden period for these khans, It was the time when Lodhis were completely dominated in subcontinent (Hindustan). Isa Khan Niazi was a prominent member among the Ruling family. Being in the same tribal unit of nobels like Ibrahim Lodhi, Sher Shah Suri . The large part these families was attached with Delhi Derbar.

In the honor of great war of Haybat Khan Sher Shah Suri awarded Isa Khan Niazi a title Azam – e – Hyumayoo and also made him governor of Multan and send him to Multan in area Pergani Kuchi (present Mianwali) there were great confusion build up between Haybat Khan Niazi (father genealogy of habit is given bhumbra’s genealogy) and Sher Shah Suri and this confusion ended with mutiny.

Tomb of Isa Khan

Isa Khan’s tomb was built during his lifetime ca 1547-48 AD, is situated near the Mughal Emperor Humayun‘s Tomb complex in Delhi which was built later, between 1562-1571 AD. Built within an enclosed octagonal garden, it bears a striking resemblance to other tombs of Sur dynasty monuments in the Lodhi Gardens. This octagonal tomb has distinct ornamentation in the form of canopies, glazed tiles and lattice screens and a deep veranda, around it supported by pillars. It stand south of the Bu Halima garden just as visitors enter the complex. An inscription on a red sandstone slab indicated that the tomb is of Masnad Ali Isa Khan, son of Niyaz Aghwan, the Chief chamberlain, and was built during the reign of Islam Shah Suri, son of Sher Shah, in 1547-48 A.D.^[1] On 5 August 2011 the restoration work on this tomb in New Delhi led to the discovery of the India’s oldest sunken garden. Isa Khan’s garden tomb in the enclosed area of Humayun’s Tomb World Heritage Site in the Capital of India can now be considered the earliest example of a sunken garden in India – attached to a tomb – a concept later developed at Akbar’s Tomb and at the Taj Mahal.^[2]

Mosque of Isa Khan

At the edge of the complex, across from the tomb, lies a mosque with noticeable mehrabs. It is known as Isa Khan’s Mosque, and was built along with the tomb. Many of the architectural details present in these structures can be seen further evolved in the main Humayun’s tomb, though on a much grander scale, such as the tomb being placed in a walled garden enclosure.^[3]

Gnenral Bakht Khan

Bakht Khan (1797–13 May 1859) was nominal commander-in-chief of Indian rebel forces in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the East India Company.

Background

Bakht Khan was a Pashtun related to the family of Rohilla chief Najib-ul-Daula, from a branch of the Yusufzai tribe. He was born in Bijnor in Rohilkhand and later became a subedar in the army of the East India Company, gaining forty years of experience in the Bengal horse artillery and seeing action in the First Anglo-Afghan War.He also was a part of rebellion of 1857.

The Rebellion

By the time Khan arrived at Delhi on July 1, 1857, the city had already been taken by rebel forces and the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah II had been proclaimed Emperor of India. The emperor’s eldest son, Mirza Mughal, also called Mirza Zahiruddin, had been given the title of chief general, but this prince had no military experience. This was the time when Bakht Khan along with his forces arrived in Delhi on Wednesday 1 July 1857. With his arrival the leadership position did improve. Bakht Khan’s superior abilities quickly became evident, and the emperor gave him actual authority and the title of Saheb-I-Alam Bhadur, or Lord Governor General. Khan was virtual commander of the sepoy forces, although Mirza Zahiruudin was still the commander in chief.

 

Bakht Khan faced many problems which needed his immediate attention. The first and foremost problem was financial, to solve which he obtained from the Emperor authority to collect taxes. The second problem was the logistical one of supplies, which became more and more acute with the passage of time and even more so when British forces assaulted the city in September. The British had many spies and agents in the city and were constantly pressurizing Bahadur Shah to surrender. The situation around Delhi proceeded to deteriorate rapidly; Bakht Khan’s leadership could not compensate for the rebels’ lack of organization, supplies and strength on the part of their monarch. Delhi was besieged on June 8. On September 14 the British assaulted the Kashmiri Gate and Badur Shah fled to Humayun’s Tomb before surrendering to the British, against Bakht Khan’s pleas, on September 20, 1857.

 

Bakht Khan himself fled Delhi and joined rebel forces in Lucknow and Shahjahanpur. In 13 May 1859 he was mortally wounded and died. He lies buried in the Graveyard of Nanser, now in Pakistan, also called Koz Band.

Sher Shah Suri

Sher Shah Suri , also known as Sher Khan, “The Lion King”) was the founder of the Sur Empire in North India, with its capital at Delhi.^[3] An ethnic Pashtun, Sher Shah took control of the Mughal Empire in 1540. After his accidental death in 1545, his son Islam Shah became his successor.^{[4][5][6][7][8]} He first served as a private before rising to become a commander in the Mughal army under Babur and then as the governor of Bihar. In 1537, when Babur’s son Humayun was elsewhere on an expedition, Sher Khan overran the state of Bengal and established the Sur dynasty.^[9] A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah proved himself a gifted administrator as well as an able general. His reorganization of the empire laid the foundations for the later Mughal emperors, notably Akbar the Great, son of Humayun.^[9]

 

During his five year rule from 1540 to 1545, he set up a new civic and military administration, issued the first Rupee and re-organised the postal system of India.^[10] He further developed Humayun’s Dina-panah city and named it Shergarh and revived the historical city of Pataliputra as Patna which had been in decline since the 7th century CE.^[11] He is also famously remembered for killing a fully grown tiger with his bare hands in a jungle of Bihar.^[4][9] He extended the Grand Trunk Road from Chittagong in Bangladesh to Kabul in Afghanistan.

Early life and origin

Sher Shah was born as Farid Khan in the present day district of Mahendragarh in south Haryana, earlier part of Hisar district of combined Punjab in India. His grand father Ibrahim Khan Sur was a land lord (Jagirdar) in Narnaul area and represented Delhi rulers of that period. Mazar of Ibrahim Khan Sur still stands as a monument in Narnaul. Tarikh-i Khan Jahan Lodi (MS. p. 151).^[2] also confirm this fact. However, the online Encyclopædia Britannica states that he was born in Sasaram (Bihar), in the Rohtas district.^[4] He was one of about eight sons of Mian Hassan Khan Sur, a prominent figure in the government of Bahlul Khan Lodi. Sher Khan belonged to the Pashtun Sur tribe (the Pashtuns are known as Afghans in historical Persian language sources).^[12] His grandfather, Ibrahim Khan Sur, was a noble paad who was recruited much earlier by Sultan Bahlul Lodi of Delhi during his long contest with the Jaunpur Sultanate.

“It was at the time of this bounty of Sultán Bahlol, that the grandfather of Sher Sháh, by name Ibráhím Khán Súri,*[The Súr represent themselves as descendants of Muhammad Súri, one of the princes of the house of the Ghorian, who left his native country, and married a daughter of one of the Afghán chiefs of Roh.] with his son Hasan Khán, the father of Sher Sháh, came to Hindu-stán from Afghánistán, from a place which is called in the Afghán tongue “Shargarí,”* but in the Multán tongue “Rohrí.” It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaimán Mountains, about six or seven kos in length, situated on the banks of the Gumal. They entered into the service of Muhabbat Khán Súr, Dáúd Sáhú-khail, to whom Sultán Bahlol had given in jágír the parganas of Hariána and Bahkála, etc., in the Panjáb, and they settled in the pargana of Bajwára.”^[2]

—Abbas Khan Sarwani, 1580

During his early age, Farid was given a village in Fargana, Delhi(comprising present day districts of Bhojpur, Buxar, Bhabhua of Bihar) by Omar Khan, the counselor and courtier of Bahlul Khan Lodi. Farid Khan and his father, who had several wives, did not get along for a while so he decided to run away from home. When his father discovered that he fled to serve Jamal Khan, the governor of Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, he wrote Jamal Khan a letter that stated:

“Faríd Khán, being an­noyed with me, has gone to you without sufficient cause. I trust in your kindness to appease him, and send him back; but if refusing to listen to you, he will not return, I trust you will keep him with you, for I wish him to be instructed in religious and polite learning.”^[13]

Jamal Khan had advised Farid to return home but he refused. Farid replied in a letter:

“If my father wants me back to instruct me in learning, there are in this city many learned men: I will study here.”^[13]

Conquering Bihar and Bengal

Farid Khan started his service under Bahar Khan Lohani, the Mughal Governor of Bihar.^[1][4] Because of his valor, Bahar Khan rewarded him the title Sher Khan (Tiger Lord). After the death of Bahar Khan, Sher Khan became the regent ruler of the minor Sultan, Jalal Khan. Later sensing the growth Sher Shah’s power in Bihar, Jalal sought assistance of Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah, the independent Sultan of Bengal. Ghiyasuddin sent an army under General Ibrahim Khan. But, Sher Khan defeated the force at the battle of Surajgarh in 1534. Thus he achieved complete control of Bihar.^[1]In 1538, Sher Khan attacked Bengal and defeated Ghiyashuddin Shah.^[1] But he could not capture the kingdom because of sudden expedition of Emperor Humayun.^[1] In 1539, Sher Khan faced Humayun in the battle of Chausa. He forced Humayun out of India. Assuming the title Sher Shah, he ascended the throne of Delhi.^[4]

Battle of Sammel

In 1543, Sher Shah Suri set out against Rajputana with a huge force of 80,000 cavalry. With an army of 50,000 cavalry, Maldeo Rathore advanced to face Sher Shah’s army. Instead of marching to the enemy’s capital Sher Shah halted in the village of Sammel in the pargana of Jaitaran, ninety kilometers east of Jodhpur. After one month, Sher Shah’s position became critical owing to the difficulties of food supplies for his huge army. To resolve this situation, Sher Shah resorted to a cunning ploy. One evening, he dropped forged letters near the Maldeo’s camp in such a way that they were sure to be intercepted. These letters indicated, falsely, that some of Maldeo’s army commanders were promising assistance to Sher Shah. This caused great consternation to Maldeo, who immediately (and wrongly) suspected his commanders of disloyalty. Maldeo left for Jodhpur with his own men, abandoning his commanders to their fate.

 

After that Maldeo’s innocent generals Jaita and Kunpa fought with the just 20,000 men against an enemy force of 80,000 men. In the ensuing battle of Sammel (also known as battle of Giri Sumel), Sher Shah emerged victorious, but several of his generals lost their lives and his army suffered heavy losses. Sher Shah is said to have commented that “for a few grains of bajra (millet, which is the main crop of barren Marwar) I almost lost the entire kingdom of Hindustan.”After this victory, Sher Shah’s general Khavass Khan took possession of Jodhpur and occupied the territory of Marwar from Ajmer to Mount Abu in 1544. But by July, Maldeo reoccupied his lost territories.

Ghiyasuddin Balban

Ghiyasuddin Balban  was the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty.

Early life

He was son of a Central Asian Turkic noble of the Ilbari tribe, but as a child he was captured by Mongols and sold as a slave at Ghazni^[2] Later, he was bought by Sultan Iltutmish in 1232 CE. He was liberally educated. He introduced the Persian culture of Zaminbos that is lying flat on one’s face before the emperor. He was first appointed as Khasdar (king’s personal attendant) by the Sultan.^[2] He became the head of the Chalissa, a group of forty Turkic nobles of the state. After the overthrow of Razia Sultana, he made rapid strides in the subsequent reigns. He was initially the Prime Minister of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud from 1246 to 1266 and married his daughter. Since Sultan Nasiruddin did not have male heir, after his death, Balban declared himself the Sultan of Delhi. Balban ascended the throne in 1266 at the age of sixty with the title of Ghyasuddin Balban.^[2]

Military Campaigns

One of famous military campaigns of Balbun was against Meo, or Mayo, the people of Mewat who used to plunder the people of Delhi even in the day light. He took upon himself the task of chastising the turbulent people of Mewat, the region south of Delhi.^[3]During his reign, Balban ruled with an iron fist. He broke up the ‘Chahalgani’, a group of the forty most important nobles in the court. He tried to establish peace and order in the country of India. He built many outposts in areas where there was crime and garrisoned them with soldiers. Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown by establishing an efficient espionage system.

 

Sultan Balban had a strong and well-organized spy system. Balban placed secret reporters and news-writers in every department. The spies were independent authority only answerable to Sultan. Balban was strict administrator of justice. He did not show any partiality even to his own kith and kin. About his justice Dr. Ishwari Prasad remarked “So great was the dread of Sultan’s inexorable justice that no one dared to ill-treat his servant and slaves.” When a complaint was made that Malik Baqbaq, a powerful landlord of Badaun killed one of his own servant, Balban ordered his death sentence. The news-writer(spy), who was responsible for Badaun reporting was also executed because he failed to report this act of injustice to Sultan.^[4]

 

He ruled as the Sultan from 1266 until his death in 1286, and was succeeded by his grandson, Muiz ud din Qaiqabad, who reign (1287–1290). His successors were weak and incompetent and the throne was eventually captured by Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji in 1290, bringing an end to the Slave dynasty.

Today, Tomb of Balban wherein a true arch and a true dome were built of the first time in India,^[5] lies within the Mehrauli Archaeological Park in Delhi, adjacent to which stands that of his son Khan Shahid and wall mosque. The domes of both the tombs have collapsed and the structures are ruined structures were restored in the recent years when the conservation work began in the park.^[5].^[1]

Razia Sultana

Raziyya al-Din  usually referred to in history as Razia Sultan, was the Sultan of Delhi in India from 1236 to May 1240. Like some other Muslim princesses of the time, she was trained to lead armies and administer kingdoms if necessary.^{[1][dead link]} Razia Sultana was the only woman ruler of both the Sultanate and the Mughal period, although other women ruled from behind the scenes.^[2] Razia refused to be addressed as Sultana because it meant “wife or mistress of a sultan”. She would answer only to the title “Sultan”. Razia had all qualities of a great monarch.

Reign as Sultan and Death

Razia (also called Radiyya or Raziyya) succeeded her father Shams-ud-din Iltutmish to the Sultanate of Delhi in 1236. Iltutmish became the first sultan to appoint a woman as his successor when he designated his daughter Razia as his heir apparent. Razia was the first and last women ruler of Delhi Sultnate. (According to one source, Iltumish’s eldest son had initially been groomed as his successor, but had died prematurely.) But the Muslim nobility had no intention of acceding to Iltutmish’s appointment of a woman as heir, and after the sultan died on April 29, 1236, Razia’s brother, Rukn ud din Firuz, was elevated to the throne instead.

 

Ruknuddin’s reign was short. With Iltutmish’s widow Shah Turkaan for all practical purposes running the government, Ruknuddin abandoned himself to the pursuit of personal pleasure and debauchery, to the outrage of the citizenry. On November 9, 1236, both Ruknuddin and his mother Shah Turkaan were assassinated^[3] after only six months in power. With reluctance, the nobility agreed to allow Razia to reign as Sultan of Delhi. She dressed like a man and sat in open durbar. She was an efficient ruler and posessed all the qualities of a Monarch. As a child and adolescent, Razia had little contact with the women of the harem, so she had not learnt the customary behavior of women in the Muslim society that she was born into. Even before she became Sultan, she was reportedly preoccupied with the affairs of state during her father’s reign. As Sultan, Razia preferred a man’s tunic and headdress; and contrary to custom, she would later show her face when she rode an elephant into battle at the head of her army.

 

A shrewd politician, Razia managed to keep the nobles in check, while enlisting the support of the army and the populace. Her greatest accomplishment on the political front was to manipulate rebel factions into opposing each other. At that point, Razia seemed destined to become one of the most powerful rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. But Razia miscounted the consequences that a relationship with one of her advisers, Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut, an Abyssinian Siddi (Habshi) slave,^[4] would have for her reign. According to some accounts, Razia and Yaqut were lovers, other sources simply identify them as close confidants. In any case, before long she had aroused the jealousy of the Turkic nobility by the favoritism she displayed toward Yaqut, who was not a Turk, when she appointed him to be Superintendent of the Stables. Eventually, a childhood friend named Malik Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda, joined a rebellion by other provincial governors who refused to accept Razia’s authority.

 

A battle between Razia and Altunia ensued, with the result that Yaqut was killed and Razia taken prisoner.^[5] To escape death, Razia agreed to marry Altunia. Meanwhile, Razia’s brother, Muizuddin Bahram Shah, had usurped the throne. After Altunia and Razia undertook to take back the sultanate from Bahram through battle, both Razia and her husband were defeated on 24th of Rabi’ al-awwal A.H. 638 (Oct. 1240). They fled Delhi and reached Kaithal the next day, where their remaining forces abandoned them. They both fell into the hands of Jats and were robbed and killed on 25th of Rabi’ al-awwal A.H. 638,^[6] this date corresponds to October 13, 1240.^[7] Bahram, for his part, would later be dethroned for incompetence.

Legacy

Razia is said to have pointed out that the spirit of religion was more important than its parts, and that even the Islamic prophet Muhammad spoke against overburdening the non-Muslims. On another occasion, she reportedly tried to appoint an Indian Muslim convert from Hinduism to an official position but again ran into opposition from the nobles. Razia was reportedly devoted to the cause of her empire and to her subjects. There is no record that she made any attempt to remain aloof from her subjects, rather it appears she preferred to mingle among them. Razia established schools, academies, centers for research, and public libraries that included the works of ancient philosophers along with the Qur’an and the traditions of Muhammad. Hindu works in the sciences, philosophy, astronomy, and literature were reportedly studied in schools and colleges.

Shams-ud-din Iltutmish

Shams-ud-din Iltutmish   was the third ruler of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi of Turkic origin.^[1] He was a slave of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and later became his son-in-law and close lieutenant. He was the Governor of Badaun when he deposed Qutub-ud-din’s successor Aram Shah and acceeded to the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in 1211. He shifted Capital from Lahore to Delhi, remained the ruler until his death on May 1, 1236. Iltutmish introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital-the two basic coins of the Sultanate period, with a standard weight of 175 grains. He introudced Iqtadari system: division of empire into Iqtas, which were assigned to the nobles and officers in lieu of salary.

 

He built the Hauz-i-Shamsi reservoir in Mehrauli in 1230, which also has Jahaz Mahal standing on its edge, used by later Mughal Emperors. In 1231, he built Sultan Ghari the mausoleum of his eldest son, Prince Nasiru’d-Din Mahmud, which was the first Islamic Mausoleum in Delhi. His own tomb exists, within the Qutb complex in Mehrauli, Delhi. He suppressed all internal revolts and also checked external invaders successfully. He got completed the construction of qutub minar.

Early life and career

Shams-ud-din belonged to the tribe of Ilbari in Turkestan. He was sold into slavery at an early age. He was purchased by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak, then Viceroy of Delhi,. He rose quickly in Aybak’s service, married his daughter, and served in succession as the Governor of Gwalior and Baran. In recognition of his services during the campaign of Muhammad of Ghur against the Khokhars in 1205-06, he was, by the Sultan’s order, manumitted.^[2] Iltutmish was appointed Governor of Badaun in 1206 and was serving in this post when Aybak died in a polo accident and a group of noblemen invited Iltutmish to stake his claim on the Indian dominions of the Ghurids.^[3]

Sultan of Delhi

Rise to power

In 1210, Qutb-ud-din Aibak died. Muizzi amirs, who had been appointed by Muhammad of Ghor supported Aram Shah. Qutbi amirs, owing allegiance to Aibak, invited Iltutmish, then Governor of Badaun, to seize power in Delhi. Aram Shah acceded to the throne in Lahore. In 1211, Iltutmish claimed the throne in Delhi. Aram Shah marched towards Delhi but was slain in battle at Bagh-i-Jud leaving Iltutmish unopposed in Delhi.^[3]

Early challenges

On his accession, Iltutmish faced a number of challenges to his rule. In the aftermath of Aibak’s death, the Ghurid dominions in India had divided into four. Iltutmish controlled Delhi. Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, the Governor of Uch and Multan asserted his independence.^[4] Ali Mardan Khilji, who had been appointed Governor of Lakhnauti in Bengal by Aibak in 1206, had thrown off his allegiance to Delhi after his death and styled himself Sultan Ala-ud-din. His successor, Ghiyasuddin, conquered Bihar.^[5] Lahore was contested by Iltutmish, Qabacha and Tajuddin Yildoz, Muhammad of Ghor’s adopted son and successor in Ghazni. Yildoz attempted to bring Delhi under his control. Initially, Iltutmish acknowledged Yildoz’s suzerainty by accepting the symbolic presents of the chatr and durbash.^[6] The Hindu princes and chiefs were discontented at their loss of independence and had recovered Kannauj, Benaras, Gwalior, and Kalinjar had been lost during Qutub-ud-din’s reign^[7] while Ranthambore had been reconquered by the Chauhans during Aram Shah’s rule.

 

To add to Iltutmish’s troubles, some of the Amirs of Delhi expressed resentment against his rule.^[8]The first order of business was to bring under control dependencies of Delhi that were under the control of Muizzi nobles and Hindu chieftains. Iltutmish launched military campaigns to assert his rule over Awadh, Badaun, Benares and Siwalik.^[3] Iltutmish’s son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud captured the Gangetic valley territories of Budaun, Benaras, and Kanauj. Rohilkhand was taken with heavy losses.^[7]In 1215-1216, Yildoz, who had been defeated and expelled from Ghazni by the forces of the Shah of Khwarezm, moved towards Punjab and captured Lahore from Qabacha. Yildoz laid claim to the throne of Delhi as the heir to Muhammad of Ghor. Iltutmish refused, stating

the dominion of the world is enjoyed by the one who possesses the greatest strength. The principle of hereditary succession is not extinct but long ago destiny abolished this custom.^[6]

Iltutmish defeated Yildoz at Tarain. Yildoz was imprisoned in Badaun and was later executed. This ended Ghazni’s aspirations to dominate northern India^[4]After the death of Yildoz, Qabacha had retaken Lahore. In 1217, Iltutmish led his army towards Qabacha. Qabacha attempted to retreat from Lahore towards Multan but was defeated at Mansura. Iltutmish refrained from attacking Sindh due to the presence of Mongols on his north-west frontier. Iltutmish was preoccupied with the Mongol threat and did not threaten Qabacha until 1227. Lahore was under Iltutmish’s rule but not for long.^[4]

Mongol threat

In 1221, the Mongols, under Genghis Khan appeared for the first time on the banks of the Indus. They had overrun the countries of Central and Western Asia with lightning rapidity. The Mongols captured Khiva and forced its ruler, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu to flee to the Punjab. Mingburnu entered into an alliance with the Khokhars and captured Lahore and much of the Punjab. He requested an alliance with Iltutmish against the Mongols . The Sultan of Delhi refused, not wishing to get into a conflict with Genghis Khan and marched towards Lahore at the head of a large army. Mingburnu retreated from Lahore and moved towards Uchch inflicting a heavy defeat on Qabacha, and plundered Sindh and northern Gujarat and returned to Persia in 1224. The Mongols invested Multan before leaving as well.^[9]

Qutb-ud-din Aibak

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (Arabic: قطب الدين أيبك‎, Persian: قطب الدین ایبک‎; lit. “Axis of the Faith”) was a Turkic king of Northwest India who ruled from his capital in Delhi where he built the Qutub Minar and the Quwwat Al Islam mosque.^[1] He was of Turkic descent from central Asia(modern day Aybak, Samangan, Afghanistan), the first Sultan of Delhi and founder of the Ghulam dynasty (Mamluk Sultanate) of India. He ruled for only four years, from 1206 to 1210 AD. He died while playing polo in Lahore.^[2]

 

He was a lover of literature and art. Qutb-ud-din Aibak ruled for four years until he had a fatal accident while playing chaugan (polo). His horse fell and he was impaled on the pommel of his saddle. His early death prevented him completing his plans for organizing his kingdom and establishing a sound administration. He built the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi^[3] and the dhai-din-ka-Jhonpra mosque in Ajmer. He started the construction of Qutb Minar in Delhi, which is dedicated to a famous Sufi Saint of the time, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki. After he died, the minar was completed by his successor, Iltutmish. He is also remembered as lakhbaksh or giver of lakhs, because of his generosity.